Introduction

The 2010 National Census of China publishes the Kam population of different administration units as in the following chart that is ordered by region and percentage. There are nearly 1,000,000 speakers of the Southern dialect and about 400,000 speakers of the Northern dialect. However, the remaining portion of ethnic Kam only speaks Chinese.

Administrative Unit

Population

Kam population

Percentage

Guìzhōu 贵州

Qiándōngnán 黔东南

Lípíng 黎平

458,533

324,867

70,85%

 

 

Tiānzhù 天柱

348,302

235,241

67,54%

 

 

Jĭnpíng 锦屏

190,429

94,537

49,64%

 

 

Sānsuì 三穗

170,167

83,193

48,89%

 

 

Cóngjiāng 从江

301,513

123,270

40,88%

 

 

Róngjiāng 榕江

300,369

115,295

38,38%

 

 

Jiànhé 剑河

189,085

65,170

34,47%

 

 

Céngŏng 岑巩

187,734

61,006

32,50%

 

 

Zhènyuăn 镇远

222,766

71,800

32,23%

 

 

Kăilĭ City 凯里

433,236

22,099

5,10%

 

 

Shībĭng 施秉

137,171

3,464

2,53%

 

 

Léishān 雷山

132,004

2,752

2,08%

 

 

Dānzhài 丹寨

135,400

1,452

1,07%

 

Tóngrén 铜仁

Yùpíng 玉屏

126,462

98,757

78,09%

 

 

Wànshān 万山

54,674

40,130

73,40%

 

 

Tóngrén 铜仁

308,583

104,051

33,72%

 

 

Shíqiān 石阡

334,508

101,990

30,49%

 

 

Jiāngkǒu 江口

189,288

17,011

8,99%

 

 

Sōngtáo 松桃

547,488

14,025

2,56%

Húnán 湖南

Huáihuà 怀化

Xīnhuǎng 新晃

241,690

193,678

80,13%

 

 

Tōngdào 通道

206,327

156,719

75,96%

 

 

Huìtóng 会同

331,392

173,947

52,49%

 

 

Zhǐjiāng 芷江

334,229

175,030

52,37%

 

 

Jìngzhōu 靖州

245,444

63,962

26,06%

 

 

Hóngjiāng 洪江

485,061

26,360

5,43%

 

 

Hèchéng 鹤城

346,522

10,370

2,99%

 

Shàoyáng 邵阳

Suíníng 绥宁

339,235

13,973

4,12%

 

 

Chéngbù 城步

241,517

3,498

1,45%

 

 

Xīnníng 新宁

557,120

283

0,05%

Guǎngxī 广西

Liŭzhōu 柳州

Sānjiāng 三江

304,149

170,248

55,98%

 

 

Rongshui 融水

425,608

48,020

11,28%

 

 

Róng'ān 融安

283,029

8,303

2,93%

 

Guìlín 桂林

Lóngshèng 龙胜

160,796

42,718

26,57%

Húběi 湖北

Ēnshī 恩施

Xuān'ēn 宣恩

335,984

46,817

13,93%

 

 

Ēnshī 恩施

755,725

17,187

2,27%

Totals:

10,361,540

2,731,223

26,35%

The Kam people form the lone constituent of the Dòng 侗 Nationality. They consist of two groups, Northern Kam and Southern Kam, whose speech has limited intelligibility between each other. Since both these dialects are spoken in disconnected areas, they have drifted apart from each other over the centuries.

In native songs, the Kam people remember their migration from Fújiàn and Guǎngdōng province into Southeast Guìzhōu during ancient times, possibly as early as during the Hàn Dynasty 汉朝 (206 BCE-220 CE). However, no evidence exists for this migration theory. The etymology of Kam remains uncertain. Kam might be derived from the native verb gaemv ‘hide’, in which case it would denote a group of people hidden in remote mountain areas. According to Edwin Pulleybank, the term dòng, written as 洞 and 峒 in documents of the Sòng dynasty 宋朝 (960-1279), is a Tai word borrowed into Chinese and designates a landscape, the level ground between cliffs and beside a stream. The term first designated an area and was then transferred to the people inhabiting that area.

Culture

(A) History: From the Táng dynasty 唐朝 (618-907) onward, the Kam people were embroiled in several rebellions against invading Han settlers. These rebellions intensified during the Míng dynasty 明朝 (1368-1644) and are associated with historical and sometimes mythical hero figures that are still venerated in Kam society today.

Zhàoxīng 肇兴 villageThe first rebel leader was a woman named Xing Ni洗夫人. Xing Ni was a singer who led a rebellion against the affluent Hàn landlord Lĭ Chángshùn 李长顺 in the Lípíng 黎平 county. She humiliated Lĭ Chángshùn by means of a magical sword, without killing him. Lĭ Chángshùn returned with reinforcements and snatched the sword. Xing Ni escaped and returned with a magical fan, with which she retook the sword and decapitated Lĭ. The landlord’s son called upon imperial troops under the pretext of quelling a Kam uprising. When the requested troops came to surround the rebellious village, Xing Ni stuck a deal with the spirit of a nearby lake. She sacrificed herself to become a stone in exchange for the spirit’s assistance in defeating the imperial army. The troops were indeed surmounted and Xing Ni petrified. For this reason, Xing Ni is revered by the Kam people until today.

Wú Miăn 吴勉 (?-1385) was another Kam rebel during the Míng dynasty 明朝 (1368-1644). The oppressive taxation system of the imperial government, coupled with the invading Han settlers, drove the Kam to open rebellion. The young Wú Miăn unleashed supernatural power upon hearing the news about the murder of his father by government forces.

From Guìzhōu, he shot supernatural arrows in the direction of the imperial throne in the capital of Nánjīng 南京. Since the shooting was badly timed, the arrows hit the throne in the absence of the emperor. On his part, the emperor was able to track the origin of the arrows, dispatched troops to Guìzhōu and combatted the rebels for seven years. Wú Miăn was eventually captured and executed in 1385. After Wú Miăn’s death, a burrow with golden treasures was discovered in the area close to his native village in Lípíng 黎平. When the emperor heard about the hole in the ground, he ordered an expedition in order to retrieve the treasures. After he and his soldiers went into the hole, its entrance was closed up and the hole ended up becoming their graves. Wú Miăn is revered in Southern Kam counties, except on a particular day of the year.

In the 1390s, the Northern Kam rebel Lin Kuan 林王 (?-1397) from the Jĭnpíng 锦屏 area led an insurrection against military outposts of the imperial government. Despite some military success, the Kam rebels were unable to withstand the constant influx of imperial reinforcements. Lin Kuan was captured and executed in 1397. The Northern Kam celebrate a Lin Kuan Day 林王节 in the sixth lunar month of every year.

From the 15th century onward, the Han culture began to transform the Kam society. Han settlers brought new agricultural techniques, the Confucian education system, as well as the Buddhist religion to Southeast Guìzhōu. The Kam people did slowly adapt to the changing environment, but skirmishes with government troops continued until as recently as the 19th century. The Kam participated in three Miao rebellions in the 18th and 19th century. Jiāng Yìngfāng 姜映芳 (1833-1862), a Northern Kam man of Tiānzhù 天柱 whose father was murdered in prison, organized a rebel army. He joined forces with Zhāng Xiùméi 张秀眉 (1823-1872), a central figure of the Third Miao rebellion (1854-1873). By 1862, the combined armies of Jiāng and Zhāng had occupied most of the Kam area in Guìzhōu and Húnán. The Qīng government collectively withdrew troops and conquered the rebel strongholds by means of superior gun power. Jiāng Yìngfāng was captured and executed in September 1862.

In 1934, the Red Army passed on its Long March through Southeast Guìzhōu. According to Norman Geary, four hundred native Kam men of Tiānzhù 天柱 allied with the Republicans and were forced to retreat to Taiwan in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), the native Kam culture was suppressed, as happened elsewhere in China. Kam operas and singing were prohibited as a result of this suppression. In the 1990s and 2000s, more than 150,000 Kam people left their villages in order to find work as migrant workers 民工 in factories of Guăngdong and the Chinese east coast. Most of them are young people.

Wind-and-Rain Bridge 风雨桥(B) Architecture: There are a few architectural identity markers of the Kam people, the most prominent of them being Wind-and-Rain Bridges and Drum Towers. In these structures of high artistic value, the pillars, columns, and beams support each other by means of wood tenons but without using a single nail.

The first marker is Wind-and-Rain bridges; this name is attributed to the fact that they are roofed and offer shelter. Dozens of bridges are found in the Kam area. Perhaps the most famous bridge is located in Sānjiāng 三江 county (see photo). Dozens of Drum Towers stand in villages across the Kam area. Historically, their function was to serve as reference points in case of emergency, as places where the drum was beaten. Villagers now use these drum towers as social meeting points. Veranda Houses are basically houses with long roofs and a veranda on the upper floor. Veranda houses belonging to members of the same family are clustered together.

Kam women in Róngjiāng 榕江, Guìzhōu Traditional Loom in Róngjiāng 榕江, Guìzhōu

C) Customs: The Kam people had a legal system called Kuant in place until the early 20th century that organized social life at the village level, regional level, and pan-Kam level. It is important to note that Kuant is not a written code, but a ruling system of institutional gatherings. Originally, a Kuant served as a protective alliance between Kam villages which was later institutionalized as a regular gathering. The functions of Kuant gatherings are admonitory, protective, judicial and legislative. A famous legislative Kuan at the pan-Kam level was held in Róngjiāng 榕江 county in 1735-1736 when 99 village elders gathered to decide, the prohibition of inter-clan marriage (Zhao 1999: 105), among other issues.

Life at the river in Fùlù 富禄As in the Miao society, the Kam society is organized into dozens of clans of patrilineal lineage, called douc. Members of a douc descend from a remote common ancestor and might be scattered over a larger area. Each clan consists of numerous families. The concept of a family entails a broader connotation as compared to Western countries. The reference point of each family is the ongs, the paternal (grand…)grandfather. In a Kam family, there might be cousins of 2nd or 3rd degree. Membership to a clan is inherited through birth or acquired through marriage.

The Kam people cultivate glutinous and ordinary rice on paddy fields in the mountains. Glutinous rice fields are located at a higher altitude, whereas white rice fields at a lower altitude. The average peasant must walk between one and three kilometers to reach the family’s paddy fields. Irrigation tubes made of bamboo supply the requisite water to the paddy fields. In addition to rice, the Kam people are also known to grow maize, millet and diverse vegetables, such as pumpkins, beans, cabbage, and onions. Meanwhile buffaloes, pigs, hens, and ducks are livestock kept at the homes of most people. Traditionally, women produce cloth from cotton by means of a loom. In most areas, the people wear dark blue color wherein they dye the cloth using indigo shrub, a plant primarily found in Asia.

The Kam people celebrate a number of festivals, some of which are locally restricted. The most important are listed below.

  • New Year Day(新年节):The Kam people celebrate a Kam New Year on the first day of the eleventh month of the lunar year as well as the Han New Year of the first day of the first month of the lunar year. The people of Kam also commemorate the victory of Xing Ni over the landlord Lĭ Chángshùn during the Han New Year.

  • Lusheng Festival (芦笙节):In this festival on the fifteenth day of the eighth month, which is a dating event, young Kam men and women perform in singing competitions.

  • Girl’s Day (姑娘节):Black-colored rice is consumed on the eighth day of the fourth month of the lunar calendar to commemorate Yang Bamei, who helped her brother escape prison with a portion of black rice.

  • Firecracker Day (花炮节) Festival of Bull Intestines (牛肠节):This festival was celebrated at irregular intervals until the 20th century in reverence of ancestors with whom the living people enter into communion by means of consuming bull intestines.

  • Firecracker Day (花炮节):On the second day of the second lunar month, firecrackers are set off. Young men attempt to snatch a metal hoop in a red envelope which was shot in the air in order to bring it back to the point of origin. The winner receives a prize. The metal hoop symbolizes the heart of a young girl sent out to the one who was destined to be her lover.

  • Lin Kuan Day (林王节):In Northern Kam counties, people commemorate the execution of Lin Kuan in 1397.

Religion

(A) Traditional Religion: Bearing a distinct resemblance with Hmu cosmogony, the first humans on earth in Kam creation mythology, Songh Ngenh (male) and Songh Sangh (female) gave birth to eight animals, one dragon, lightning and two human children, Xangl Liangc (male) and Xangl Muih (female).

Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih were drawn in an epic battle against lightning. Lightning unleashed torrential rains that submerged the whole earth. Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih survived the flood in a big gourd. In the aftermath of the flood, lightning sent fireballs to the earth that resulted in a drought. One of these fireballs became the sun; another half fireball became the moon. After the lightning got defeated, Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih were directed to marry and bear children. Xangl Muih bore a son without limbs and with a disfigured face. His parents chopped him into pieces and scattered them across different mountains. Soon thereafter, Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih heard the voices of many babies. Some of these babies were Kam, some were Miao, and others were Han.

Colin Mackerras describes the religion of Southwestern ethnic groups as Han-imported, as assuming weak societal functions, and as having weak clergies. The religion of the Dong, the Miao and, to a lesser extent, the Nuosu might be characterized in this way.

The Kam (Dong) religion is the worship of goddesses, ancestors, celestial bodies and nature. The goddesses seem to be derived from mythical ancestors. The Kam pantheon primarily consists of female deities. Sax Suic 萨岁, the most prominent among all worshiped goddesses, is the bestower of wealth and peace. Some Kam writers relate Sax Suic to the female rebel leader Xing Ni, a romanticized Kam scion of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Xing Ni rebelled against an oppressive Han landlord. Most villages dedicate an altar to Sax Suic with a half-open umbrella stuck to it. Meanwhile other revered deities are the Sax Biingl 寨门女神, the village access goddess, who repels diseases and disasters whilst preserving harmony within the village; the Sax Bias 雷女神, the evil ‘thunder goddess’; Sax Gaos Jiuc 桥头女神, the protective ‘bridge goddess’; Sax Guaenl 妖魂, the evil possession demon; and Sax Biins 龟女神, the mythical turtle goddess (the turtle is totem of the Kam people).

Representation of Sax Suic with half-open umbrella Sax Suic Procession

It is interesting to note that there is no term for the concept of Almighty God. The term Wangx Menl ‘King of Heaven’ is used in the New Testament of 2006. This neologism is intelligible, albeit without standardized use. The Kam people revere snakes, dragons and turtles as brothers of Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih. They worship ancestors, both clan ancestors, and family ancestors. In addition, they observe a Tomb Sweeping Day 清明节 now on the same day as the Han people, which falls during early April. Celestial bodies and elements of nature such as the sun, the moon, lightning, fire, mountains, and trees are also occasionally worshipped.

The Kam people practice shamanism and sorcery. Male shamans are invited to people’s homes in case of illness. The shaman generally repels or placates the demon which is responsible for a disease by offering a sacrifice. Sorcerers act on demand to avenge people who feel oppressed by someone. A falling knife performs the curse during a ceremony.

(B) Christianity: After 1895, the Christian and Missionary Alliance established a Bible College in Wúzhōu 梧州, a city of Guăngxī province, and made short-term mission trips to Guìzhōu and Yúnnán. In 1920, two American missionaries evangelized a native Kam in Róngjiāng 榕江, a certain Mr. Huang 黄先生, who became a Christian and received formal theological education. The American missionary A. F. Desterhaft 丁意文 settled in Fùlù 富禄 in 1931 and started to learn the Kam language before establishing a mission station. Subsequently Desterhaft was promoted to the office of superintendent during 1943-1948. Two Chinese missionaries of the Christian Missionary Alliance did plant a Kam church in Róngjiāng in 1938, about which not much detail is known.

The German missionary Gustav Juttka 郁德凯 (1899-1992) of the Liebenzell Mission was stationed in Lípíng 黎平 county between 1928 and 1947. With the support of Hàn Chinese preachers, Juttka established a church in Lípíng in which hundreds of people converted to Christianity and many dozens were baptized. Most converts in this church were ethnic Hàn, but native Kam people attended it as well, particularly after 1942 when foreigners were prohibited from traveling to the countryside. Juttka’s team was active in preaching the gospel to the Kam villages of the Lípíng and Sānjiāng 三江 districts. At different times, Juttka recruited Kam-speaking believers who helped communicate with the indigenous population. Juttka commenced the process of learning the Kam language and transcribed individual Kam expressions in Latin script, although he did not translate any Bible portion. Juttka visited more than one hundred Kam villages with his team, preached the Gospel at countless gatherings, and distributed large numbers of Chinese New Testaments and tracts. In the 1930s and 1940s, Southeast Guìzhōu was plagued by bands of disgruntled robbers. Despite his life-threatening encounters with bandits, Juttka wondrously escaped unscathed.

A few dozens of Kam people converted to the Christian faith mainly in the Dìqīng 地青 area of Hóngzhōu 洪州 township and in Shuĭkŏu 水口 township. In 1947, Juttka was ordered to leave when the fight between Republicans and Communists was in full swing.

Juttka Family in Lípíng 黎平 county around 1940 Evangelism in Lípíng district around 1934

In 1947, William and Elaine Neill, missionaries of the Apostolic Church Missionary Movement from Wellington in New Zealand, settled down in Lípíng 黎平 to replace Juttka. They were also instructed to leave, but managed to stay in the nearby county of Zhènyuăn 镇远 until 1951.

During 2000-2009, Norman and Ruth Geary (吉志义和孔瑞贤) of the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) undertook a literacy program in a preschool and primary school in Zăidāng 宰荡, a remote village of Róngjiāng 榕江 county. People in this village are mainly monolingual speakers of Kam. For this project, a team of Kam teachers edited 500 Kam stories and other educational material in their native language. In 2002, the literacy program was extended to encompass five additional schools in Róngjiāng 榕江: Bākuāng 八匡, Dàlìdòng 大利洞, Gāodòng 高洞, Guīliŭ 归柳, and Miáolán 苗兰. Jacob Finifrock, an American educator, coordinated teaching of English as L3 language for most of the period 2000-2009.

During several trips to the Southern Kam area in 2001, an independent group of American Pentecostal missionaries converted young Kam people in Sānjiāng 三江 county. After training them, they sent one Kam missionary family to Lípíng 黎平 with the aim of planting churches.

Between 1996 and 2005, members of the Research Foundation and several native Kam speakers translated the New Testament in the Kam language. Copies of the New Testament were distributed in the Southern Kam area. A short sketch of the translation process is presented on this webpage.

Language

(A) General information: The Kam belongs to the Tai-Kadai family, a small language family comprising of about 75 members. The most important languages of this family are classified as follows.

The Tai-Kadai people originated from South China 2,500 years ago and have migrated in waves to places across Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar.

(B) Rare properties: The Kam language has a number of exceptional features in terms of grammar.

Morphology. The Kam language exhibits about 300 ideophones, which is more than that of other languages of East Asia. Ideophones are sound-symbolic syllables that are used after a verb or adjective in order to enhance its meaning. Some of these ideophones demonstrate interesting semiotic relationships with their host. Matthias Gerner (2004) presents a semiotic analysis of these ideophones, also referred to as expressives.

(1) Ideophones derived from nouns

 

a.

jaenv

aiv

 

a'.

pangp

jaenv jaenv

 

 

 

crest

rooster

 

 

important

IDE~

 

 

 

‘the rooster’s crest’

 

 

‘of important stature’ (also for people)

(2) Ideophones derived from verbs

 

a.

maoh

dabs

lis

hok

peet

bail.

 

a'.

mal

naih

lianh

peet peet.

 

 

 

he

carry

so that

goods

tremble

go

 

 

dish

this

spicy

IDE~

 

 

 

‘He carries a load so that the goods inside tremble.’

 

 

‘This dish is so spicy.’ (It makes people tremble.)

 

b.

bienl

xenh naih

kiuk

jenx

lac.

 

b'.

gemv

kiuk kiuk

 

 

 

rain

now

stop

a bit

OPINION

 

 

quiet

IDE~

 

 

 

‘The rain has almost stopped now.’

 

 

‘dead calm’

 

c.

duc

bal

naih

duc

gungc.

 

c'.

qik

dux dux

 

 

 

CLASSIFIER

fish

this

poisonous

very

 

 

angry

IDE~

 

 

 

‘This fish is very poisonous.’

 

 

‘very angry’ (of poisonous mood)

 

d.

jads

lamh

jads

ugs

 

d'.

jongv

jadl jadl

 

 

 

twist

rope

twist

clothes

 

 

crooked

IDE~

 

 

 

‘knit a rope’

‘knit a rope’

 

 

‘twisted and crooked’

(3) Ideophones resemble sound of host

 

 

Host

Host and Ideophone

 

a.

dengv ‘dark’

dengv duml duml ‘pitch-black’

 

b.

gaenx ‘tidy’

gaenx gadl gadl ‘very tidy’

 

c.

meik ‘new’

meik miaot miaot ‘brand-new’

 

d.

guas ‘hard’

guas guadl guadl ‘rock hard’

 

e.

guanv ‘stiff’

guanv guens guens ‘starched’ (clothes)

 

f.

kop ‘slipppery’

kop kongk kongk ‘very slippery’

 

g.

yimk ‘cool’

yimk yix yix ‘pleasantly cool’

 

h.

lianh ‘spicy’

lianh lieuc lieuc ‘extremely spicy’

 

i.

luv ‘clear’

luv lengh lengh ‘crystal-clear’ (of water)

 

j.

mas ‘soft’

mas mobc mobc ‘soft and loose’

 

k.

qak ‘light’

qegt qegt ‘very light’

 

l.

nyanp ‘itchy’

nyanp nyit nyit ‘very itchy’

 

m.

pap ‘grey’

pap put put ‘ash-grey’

 

n.

sik ‘fine’

sik sebl sebl ‘very fine’

 

o.

xegs ‘scald

xegs xeeh xeeh ‘burning’ (e.g. sun)

(4) Ideophones as interjection

 

a.

aox

semx

naih

anc

iux iux.

 

 

a'.

aox

yanc

xaop

dunl

huh huh.

 

 

 

in

room

this

messy

IDE~

 

 

 

in

home

your

warm

IDE~

 

 

 

This room is really messy.’ (Simulating outcry)

In your house it is so warm.’ (Simulating purring)

(5) Onomatopoeic ideophones

 

 

Host

Host and Ideophone

 

a.

gol ‘laugh’

gol liil liil ‘giggle’ (Simulating sound of a giggle)

 

b.

gol ‘laugh’

gol hah hah ‘laugh’ (Simulating sound of a normal laugh)

 

c.

gol ‘laugh’

gol qat qat ‘laugh’ (Simulating sound of a roaring laugh)

 

d.

nees ‘weep’

nees nguc nguc (Simulating sound of weeping)

 

e.

sonl ‘snore’

sonl hodx hodx (Simulating sound of snoring)

 

f.

jil ‘eat’

jil miadx miadx (Simulating sound of a clicking tongue)

 

g.

jil ‘eat’

jil odx odx (Simulating sound of gulping food)

 

h.

ungt ‘sound’

ungt kodx kodx (Simulating sound of hungry tummy or borborygmus)

 

i.

banl ‘shout’

banl ngak ngak (Simulating sound of crying baby)

 

j.

liac ‘lick’

liac liebc liebc (Simulating sound of noisy licking by a dog)

 

k.

xouk ‘peck’

xouk dobs dobs (Simulating sound of pecking by a woodpecker)

 

l.

sint ‘call’

sint ngueev ngueev (Simulating sound of cawing by a raven)

 

m.

biagl ‘whip’

biagl xids xids (Simulating sizzling sound of a whip)

 

n.

guenl ‘cut’

guenl jebx jebx (Simulating cutting sound of scissors)

 

o.

beeuv ‘crack’

beeuv piedp piedp (Simulating cracking sound of popcorn)

 

p.

dags ‘knock’

dags dengl dengl (Simulating knocking sound of a loom)

Syntax. In the Kam language, passive constructions are formed with a passive particle (douh), which also functions as plain verb touch as well as the modal auxiliary verb must.

(6) Douh as verb touch

 

a.

maoh

douh

jemc ids

yaoc

yangx.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

he

touch

wound

my

DP

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘He has touched my wound.’

 

 

 

b.

maoh

douh

miadx.

 

 

 

c.

maoh

douh

bienl.

 

 

 

he

touch

knife

 

 

 

 

he

touch

rain

 

 

 

‘He was cut by a knife.’

 

‘He was drenched by rain.’

 

d.

maoh

douh

sais.

 

 

 

e.

maoh

douh

nuic laox.

 

 

 

he

touch

intestines

 

 

 

 

he

touch

leprosy

 

 

 

‘He was satisfied.’

 

‘He got leprosy.’

(7) Douh as verb must

 

a.

maoh

douh

qamt

weengc.

 

 

b.

nyac

douh

suit

xenl

oul

 

 

it

must

walk

sideways

 

 

 

you

must

dress

body

EXCL

 

 

‘It must walk sideways.’

 

‘You must dress well.’

(8) Douh as passive particle

 

 

gueec

yanc

xaop

douh

maoh

jeih

dah.

 

 

 

 

 

buffalo

home

you

PASS

he

count

EXP

 

 

 

 

 

Your family’s buffalo were counted by him.’

 

There is a productive construction wherein an adjective is placed between a possessor and possessee noun. The predication zooms in from the possessor onto the possessee. We call this Zoom-on-possessee (ZoP) construction, whose syntax is different from the regular possessive construction. Some of these constructions have a literal meaning, whereas others have a metaphorical signification. Matthias Gerner (2005) provides a detailed account of ZoP-constructions.

(9) Possessive constructions versus ZoP-constructions

 

 

Possessive Construction

 

 

ZoP-construction

 

a.

dal

maoh

ladc

gungc.

 

a'.

maoh

ladc

dal.

 

 

eyes

he

protruding

very

 

 

he

protruding

eyes

 

 

His eyes are very protruding.’

 

 

He is protruding at his eyes.’

 

b.

jiv

maoh

lail

gungc.

 

b'.

maoh

lail

jiv.

 

 

idea

he

good

very

 

 

he

good

idea

 

 

His ideas are very good.’

 

 

He is good at having ideas.’

 

c.

xenl

bal

bagx

gungc.

 

c'.

bal

bagx

xenl.

 

 

body

fish

white

very

 

 

fish

white

body

 

 

The body of the fish is very white’

 

The fish went belly-up.’

 

d.

soh

kuaot

dangl

gungc.

 

d'.

kuaot

dangl

soh.

 

 

odour

wine

fragrant

very

 

 

wine

fragrant

odour

 

 

The smell of the wine is very good.’

 

The wine smells good.’

 

e.

sais

maoh

yais

gungc.

 

e'.

maoh

yais

sais.

 

 

intestines

he

long

very

 

 

he

long

intestines

 

 

His intestines are very long.’

 

 

He is long sufffering.’

 

f.

ebl

maoh

mas

gungc.

 

f'.

maoh

mas

ebl.

 

 

mouth

he

soft

very

 

 

he

soft

mouth

 

 

His mouth is very soft.’

 

 

He is relenting.’

 

g.

dal

maoh

yak

gungc.

 

g'.

maoh

yak

dal.

 

 

eyes

he

red

very

 

 

he

red

eyes

 

 

His eyes are very red.’

 

 

He is envious.’

 

(C) Writing system: In the 1950s, the Bĕijīng Communist Government sent out investigation teams into the minority areas. In 1957, the Kam investigation team chose the Southern Kam dialect as the basis for developing a script. The team selected the speech of Zhānglŭ 章鲁 village in Róngjiāng 榕江, primarily due to its vicinity to the county city. They developed a Romanized script, such as the script in the Qanao language. The Kam script is semi-official, and is yet to be adopted in its entirety by the Government.

The New Testament that the Research Foundation published in 2006 uses the Romanized script. The Kam script has three parts, one each for initials, finals, tones. There are 29 consonants (initials) in Southern Kam, two of which are only used in Chinese loanwords and the remaining is used by older speakers. The high number of contrastive points of articulation for stops and nasals is relatively rare. In particular, there are six fully contrastive nasals.

In Zhānglŭ 章鲁 speech, there are 50 finals, 36 vowels with, and 14 vowels without coda. Among the 14 vowels without coda, there are six monophthongues and eight diphthongues. There are two allophones distinguished by vowel length ([u] versus [u:]).

In Kam there are nine contrastive tones that are depicted with illustrations in the following chart. In the Romanized script, these tones are written with a silent final letter (e.g. -p, -x).

The Kam alphabet consists of 26 letters, which mark initials, finals, and tones. In the below table, each letter is introduced with contrastive examples of the basic Kam vocabulary.

A a

B b

Bilingual education in Kam and Chinese

C c

D d

E e

F f

G g

H h

I i

J j

K k

L l

M m

N n

O o

P p

Q q

R r

S s

T t

U u

V v

W w

X x

Y y

Z z

In finals

[A a]

a

al ‘song’; av ‘price’; bal ‘fish’; gax ‘Han Chinese’

ai

aiv ‘chicken’; bail ‘go’; sais ‘intestines’; xaip ‘servant’

ao

aol ‘take’; daol ‘we (incl.)’; kuaot ‘wine’

am

ams ‘dare’; hamk ‘ask’; lamh ‘rope’; qamt ‘walk’

aem

aemv ‘carry on back’; biaeml ‘hair’; gaeml ‘Kam, Dong’

an

anh ‘pole’; banl ‘man’; yanc ‘home’

aen

aenp ‘swallow’; biaenl ‘tooth’; guaenc ‘smoke’

ang

angv ‘jar’; guangs ‘bowl’; xangc ‘bed’

aeng

aengl ‘monkey’; naengl ‘nose’; yaengt ‘healthy’

ab

abs ‘bathe’; dabs ‘load’; liabs ‘grab’

ad

ads ‘cut’; hadp ‘salty’; nadl ‘sore’; padt ‘blood’

ag

ags ‘special’; piagk ‘pinch’; yags ‘tear’

In initials

[B b]

b

baengl ‘collapse’; bagx ‘white’; bax ‘locust’

 

beel ‘sell’; beeuv ‘leopard’; bens ‘fly’

 

bongc ‘tent’; bouc ‘pigeon’; bungv ‘dust’

bi

biaenl ‘tooth’; bial ‘rock’; bias ‘thunder’

 

bienl ‘rain’; bieeuv ‘run’; biungl ‘wolf’

In finals

[B b]

ab

abs ‘merge’; gabl ‘box’; habp ‘gift’; sabx ‘mixed’

eb

ebc ‘cover’; jebl ‘pick up’; lebc ‘tell’; xebc ‘ten’

ib

jibx ‘pile up’; sibs ‘receive’

ob

obs ‘hot compress’; gobs ‘just now’

ub

ubs ‘clasp’; jubs ‘wax gourd’; subs ‘meet’

In initials

[C c]

c

cunx ‘inch’

As tone

[C c]

c

dabc ‘put aside’; deic ‘take’; lamc ‘forget’; meec ‘not’

 

miac ‘hand’; nyenc ‘person’; nyinc ‘year’

 

sinc ‘money’; singc ‘kindness’; yac ‘two’

In initials

[D d]

d

dal ‘eye’; daeml ‘pond’; daengl ‘each other’

 

dees ‘below’; deil ‘die’; deml ‘meet’

 

dinl ‘foot’; dol ‘door’; douh ‘by’; dul ‘pull up’

In finals

[D d]

ad

dadl ‘fell’; miads ‘whitewash’; yadc ‘command’

ed

jedl ‘firewood’; kuedp ‘steel’; sedl ‘tail’

id

ids ‘ill’; idx ‘bite’; lidx ‘tear open’; sidt ‘cut’

 

piidt ‘scrape; blame’

od

miodx ‘miss opportunity’; todt ‘take off’; xodx ‘destroy’

ud

buds ‘rub’; mudx ‘beard’; xudt ‘suck’

In finals

[E e]

ee

ees ‘stupid’; gueec ‘ox’; liees ‘sheep’; weex ‘do’

ei

eip ‘open’; deih ‘bag’; meik ‘new’; neix ‘mother’

eeu

eeul ‘stick to’; eeus ‘teach’; leeuv ‘sting’; seeup ‘horn’

em

ems ‘medicine’; jemc ‘hole’; lemc ‘wind’

eem

eems ‘decrease’; heemx ‘call’; leemv ‘stem’

en

env ‘mark’; bens ‘always’; menl ‘sky’

een

eenl ‘classifier’; deenh ‘a little’; weenh ‘ten thousand’

eng

dengv ‘dark’; lengh ‘approach’; xengc ‘contain’

eeng

eengv ‘again’; mieengc ‘ear of grain’; xeengp ‘unfamiliar’

aem

jaemc ‘hide’; gaems ‘suppress’; saemh ‘generation’

aen

aenp ‘swallow’; baenl ‘bamboo’; guaenl ‘soul’

aeng

daengv ‘create’; haengt ‘willing’; laengh ‘flee’

eb

ebl ‘mouth’; yebc ‘seal’; kebp ‘centipede’

ed

edl ‘first’; ngedl ‘crowded’; wedt ‘send, issue’; xedl ‘star’

eg

egt ‘guest’; legc ‘strength’; pegt ‘clap’

In initials

[F f]

f

fanh nganl ‘plan for action’; fangh beec ‘proconsul’

 

fat liit ‘law’; feih jih airplane

In initials

[G g]

g

gas ‘wait’; gaenx ‘together’; gaos ‘head’

 

geeus ‘crawl’; gol ‘laugh’; gungc ‘much’

gu

guanl ‘name’; guaov ‘knee’; guis ‘stream’

ng

ngeec ‘sprout’; ngeeux ‘strive for’; nguk ‘pig’

ngu

nguap ‘dog’; ngueec ‘saliva’; ngueex ‘roof tile’

In finals

[G g]

ang

nyangt ‘grass’; pangp ‘big’; sangh ‘craftsman’

aeng

baengv ‘bank, shore’; maengx ‘happy’; saengl ‘root’

eng

xengc ‘contain’; yengk yengk ‘one after another’

eeng

beengc ‘drum tower’; beengl ‘expel’

ing

dingv ‘bottom, base’; qingk ‘hear’; yingp ‘spirit’

 

biingc banx ‘friend’; bagl biingv ‘testimony’

ong

ongl ‘classifier for trees’; longc ‘belly’; nongx ‘younger brother’

ung

ungs ‘make sounds’; sungp ‘word’; mungv ‘thorn, sting’

ag

agx dagx ‘dregs’; magx ‘ink stick’; xagx ‘slander’

eg

egs ‘yoke’; begs ‘one hundred’; miegs ‘female’

ig

digs ‘full’; jigx ‘bamboo flute’; sigs ‘festival’

 

biigs harass

og

hogc ‘bless’; jogc ‘bend the knee’; xogc ‘ripe, familiar’

ug

ugs ‘exit’; nugs ‘outside’; xugs ‘wash’

In initials

[H h]

h

hap ‘threaten’; hadt ‘reprimand’; haenh ‘cherish’

 

haic ‘shoe’; heenk ‘limit’; heeup ‘hit’

 

hoik ‘quick’; hut ‘poor’

As tone

[H h]

h

baengh ‘depend’; dah ‘pass’; juih ‘cupboard’; luih ‘descend’

 

naih ‘this’; nyaoh ‘be at’; senh ‘stand’; soh ‘breath’

 

wanh ‘change’; xaih ‘sieve’

In initials

[I i]

bi

biags ‘forehead’; bianh ‘spread’; biedl ‘pen’; biiul ‘jump’

pi

piat ‘turn over’; pieek ‘distribute’; pieengp ‘roast’

li

liagp ‘cold’; liemc ‘irrigate’; liop ‘wake up’

mi

mieeh ‘understand’; mieengc ‘several’; miungx ‘grasshopper’

 

miiuh ‘temple’; beeuv miiuc ‘sprout’

In finals

[I i]

i

bix ‘do not’; lix ‘speech’; xic ‘one or two hours’

 

biiv ‘close’; liih ‘vow’; siik ‘four’

im

jiml ‘put up’; nyimp ‘with’; yimk ‘account’

 

liimc ‘sickle’; liimx ‘put in order’

in

dinl ‘foot’; bins ‘yeast’; sinp ‘thousand’

 

biinv ‘correct’; miinc ‘cloth’; xiuv miinh ‘mirror’

ing

bings singh ‘holy’; dingv ‘cheat’

 

biingc ‘even’; liingh ‘bachelor’; liingx ‘acknowledge’

ib

jibx ‘pile up’; sibs ‘receive’

id

ids ‘grape’; midx ‘knife’; yidx ‘draw a cart’

 

piidt ‘scrape, reprimand’

ig

jigs ‘Classifier of certain animals’; sigx ‘entertain’; xigt ‘size’

 

biigs ‘persecute’

iu

biiul ‘jump’; miiuh ‘temple’; jiuc ‘Classifier of lengthy objects’

 

siuk ‘carve’; xiut ‘lack’

ai

lail ‘good’; maix ‘wife’; waic ‘scull, row’

ei

eis ‘not’; beis ‘pay back’; meix ‘tree’; xeih ‘disaster’

oi

oil ‘many’; qoip ‘insult’; soix ‘sin, crime’; toip ‘retreat’

ui

buic ‘fat’; juis ‘demon’; suiv ‘sit’

In initials

[J j]

j

jaix ‘elder brother’; jaenx ‘near’; jangs ‘be (copular)’

 

jav ‘that’; jeis ‘buy’; jenc ‘mountain’; jil ‘eat, drink’

 

jov ‘saw’; juml ‘gather’; jungl ‘lift, carry’

In initials

[K k]

k

kaik ‘fence’; kaemk ‘fall prostrate’; kap ‘ear’

 

keep ‘guard against’; kip ‘plough’; konx ‘clause of law’

 

kop kongp ‘free’; kuk ‘tremble’

ku

kuadt ‘wipe’; kuak ‘goods’; kuanp ‘sweet’

 

kuaot ‘wine’; kuenp ‘road’; kuip ‘hook’

As tone

[K k]

k

louk ‘surpass’; pak ‘corrupt’; qak ‘ascend’; senk ‘believe’

 

tamk ‘visit’; touk ‘arrive’; wongk ‘bucket’

 

xangk ‘think’; xunk ‘germinate’; yak ‘red’

In initials

[L l]

l

lags ‘bone’; laih ‘choose’; laos ‘enter’

 

lav ‘burst open’; ledp ‘all’; leel ‘discourse particle’

 

lis ‘receive’; longx ‘pass on’; luv ‘hungry’

li

liac ‘lick, lap’; liaenv ‘untie’; liait ‘sparrow’

 

liaop ‘push’; lionc ‘surround’; liongc ‘dragon’

 

liuuh ‘filter’; liuuk ‘urge’

As tone

[L l]

l

beel ‘sell’; buil ‘fire’; dal ‘eye’; gol ‘salt’

 

jeml ‘gold’; jinl ‘stone’; lol ‘boat’; mal ‘vegetables’

 

senl ‘township’; xal ‘cover’

In initials

[M m]

m

mac ‘tongue’; mags ‘big’; maoc ‘manure’

 

meel ‘bear’; meenh ‘still, yet’; meix ‘Classifier of clothes’

 

muc ‘example’; munc ‘fog’; mungx ‘Human classifier’

mi

miav ‘spurn’; miaol ‘mix’; miax ‘knife’

 

miedl ‘twist’; mieenh mogc ‘appearance’

 

miiul ‘Miao people’; miungh ‘miss, think of’

In finals

[M m]

am

amv ‘patch’; samp ‘three’; yaml ‘wrong’

aem

liaemc ‘measure’; taemk ‘low’; yaeml ‘deep’

em

semh ‘look for’; semp ‘heart’; semt ‘sour’

eem

beeml ‘rush’; heemt ‘cheer for’

im

qimp ‘add’; suic simx ‘viper’

 

liimc ‘sickle’; liimx ‘put in order’

om

omv ‘curved, crooked’; womv ‘shade’

um

sumx ‘room’; wumc ‘hold in arms’; juml ‘gather’

In initials

[N n]

n

nadl ‘granule’; naeml ‘black’; naengl ‘still’

 

nagp ‘sleep’; nal ‘rich’; neel ‘grip, clutch’

 

neip ‘move’; nuic ‘worm’; nuil ‘snow’

ng

ngaic ‘delay’; nganh ‘goose’; ngeengs ‘retreat’

 

ngox ‘five’; ngih ‘thin’; nguv gaos ‘nod’

ngu

nguadp ‘flea’; nguedx ‘month’; ngueev ‘cicada’

 

dangl ngueengk ngueengk ‘delicious, savory’

ny

nyaenc ‘silver’; nyaengx ‘entrust’; nyal ‘river’

 

nyaoh ‘be at’; nyenl ‘smelly’; nyox ‘milk’

In finals

[N n]

an

banl ‘yell’; nanx ‘meat’; sanp ‘weave’

aen

maenl ‘day’; yaens ‘patient’; daenl ‘wear’

ang

yangh ‘shape’; mangv ‘side, aspect’; sangx ‘maintain health’

aeng

saengc ‘straight’; daengc ‘whole’; ;jaengl ‘long time’

en

lenc ‘behind’; xenp xangh ‘body’; dens ‘root’

een

beens ‘coffin’; weenp ‘commit’; xeenk ‘display’

eng

dengv ‘dark’; meik gengl gengl ‘brand new’

eeng

beengv ‘shoot’; lup leengh leengh ‘transparent’

in

bins ‘yeast’; sinc ‘money’; xenc sinp ‘god’

 

wangk biinh ‘convenient’; xait liinh ‘offend’;

ing

mingh ‘life’; xingc ‘wall’; yings ‘shadow’

 

biingv env ‘power’; biingh ‘ill’

on

donc ‘round’; konx ‘law clause’; xonc ‘preach, spread’

ong

ongp ‘without’; ongs ‘grandfather’; longs ‘dustpan’

un

uns ‘small’; sunx ‘escort, bring’; wunx ‘’;归’

ung

dungh ‘pillar’; sungp dungl ‘language’; jungl ‘lift, carry’

In finals

[O o]

o

oc ‘bat’; bov ‘gall’; sox ‘storehouse’; wox ‘know’

oi

oil ‘cook’; doiv ‘place’; toip ‘drive away’

ou

oux ‘food’; loux ‘lure’; sous ‘vinegar’

ao

aox ‘in’; maoh ‘she, he’; laox ‘big’; gaos ‘head’

om

omv ‘crooked’; womv ‘shade’

on

onl ‘scoop out’; gonv ‘crutch’; xonv ‘return’

ong

ongk ‘empty’; songk ‘release’; xongs ‘resemble’

ob

obs ‘darn clothing’; gobs ‘just now’

od

jiv jods ‘method’; liodx ‘capture’

og

ogs ‘rice crops’; sogp ‘narrow’; xogc ‘redeem’

In initials

[P p]

p

pak ‘spoiled’; pap ‘blind’; peep ‘extremity’

 

pegt ‘clap’; pik ‘fit’; pogp ‘pour liquid’

 

pugt ‘ash, dust’; puk ‘stamp with feet’; pungt ‘period’

pi

piaengk ‘broken’; piagk ‘pinch’; piap ‘feed’

 

piat ‘turn’; pieek ‘distribute’; piuup ‘vomit’

As tone

[P p]

p

keep ‘comb’; kuenp ‘road’; liagp ‘cold’

 

longp ‘wrong’; map ‘come’; nagp ‘sleep’

 

saip ‘give’; uip ‘float’; xap ‘write’

In initials

[Q q]

q

qaenp ‘heavy’; qamt ‘walk’; qat ‘light’; qeenk ‘urge’

 

qemp ‘needle’; qik ‘replace’; qimp ‘add’

 

qinp hak ‘whole world’; qop ‘dance’

In initials

[R r]

r

rabl ‘press’; rais ‘far’; ranc ‘home’

 

rangl ‘groan’; rav ‘field’

In initials

[S s]

s

saemp ‘early’; saenx ‘roundworm’; sagx ‘courtyard’

 

sangp ‘root’; saop ‘reed’; saox ‘husband’

 

sap ‘shoulder’; sint ‘call’; sugx ‘bind’

As tone

[S s]

s

dags ‘nail’; daos ‘burn’; dos ‘put, give’; dous ‘nest’

 

jis ‘resist’; labs lieds ‘lightning’; mags ‘big’

 

mas ‘cloud’; saens ‘thorn’; uns ‘small’

In initials

[T t]

t

tamk ‘visit’; taot ‘exchange’; tenp ‘competition’

 

todt ‘take off’; toip ‘retreat’; tonk ‘explain’

 

top ‘high official’; touk ‘arrive’

As tone

[T t]

t

egt ‘guest’; hut ‘poor’; kuaot ‘wine’; laot ‘alone’

 

mant ‘yellow’; sat ‘kill’; udt ‘hot’; wedt ‘send, develop’

 

wongt ‘push’; yaot ‘fear’

In initials

[U u]

gu

guav ‘curse’; guegs ‘shoot’; guil ‘basket’

ku

kuedp soic ‘idle, lazy’; kuonp miac ‘finger ring’

ngu

ngueec ‘saliva’; nguap ‘dog’

In finals

[U u]

u

uc ‘throat’; luvhungry’; nuv ‘see’; xul ‘pearl’

uu

liuuk ‘urge’; miuuh ‘wither’; piuup ‘spit’

ui

uip ‘float’; buil ‘fire’; duis ‘ladle out’; xuip ‘blow’

eeu

eeus ‘teach’; leeuv ‘sting’; meeux ‘cat’

ou

douc ‘group’; loul ‘dig’; souc ‘worry’

iu

biiul ‘jump’; gius ‘twist, wind’; siuv ‘sharp, pointed’

um

sumx ‘room’; wumx ‘drink’

un

uns ‘small’; sunl ‘thorn’; xunp ‘answer’

ung

ungs ‘sound’; mungx ‘Human classifier’; sungp ‘word’

ub

ubs ‘clasp’; bubs ‘lung’; subs ‘meet’

ud

udt ‘hot’; buds ‘rub’; mudx ‘beard’

ug

ugs ‘clothes’; nugs ‘outside’; xugs ‘wash’

As tone

[V v]

v

aov ‘old’; av ‘price’; beengv ‘fire a gun’

 

daengv ‘create’; dengv ‘dark’; doiv ‘place’

 

gaemv ‘perish’; jeiv ‘steps’; lav ‘burst open’

In initials

[W w]

w

wagx ‘the people’; wah ‘say’; wank ‘take leave’

 

wav ‘dirty’; wedt ‘develop’; weent ‘spit’

 

wenc ‘tomb’; wongt ‘push’; wox ‘know’

In initials

[X x]

x

xaip ‘currier’; xak ‘dry in sun’; xangc ‘bed’

 

xeel ‘dregs’; xeengl ‘seize’; xih ‘only then’

 

xogl ‘fist’; xonc ‘pass on, spread’; xunp ‘answer’

As tone

[X x]

x

aemx ‘big piece’; jaenx ‘near’; lagx ‘son’; meix ‘tree’

 

mix ‘not yet’; naemx ‘water’; weex ‘do’

 

xagx ‘slander’; yax ‘evil’

In initials

[Y y]

y

yac ‘two’; yadc ‘command’; yaeml ‘deep’

 

yagc ‘love dearly’; yags ‘tear open’; yanc ‘home’

 

yeel ‘frog’; yenl ‘eagle’; yingp ‘spirit’

ny

nyangt ‘grass’; nyenc ‘person’; nyimp ‘with’

 

nyaoh ‘be at’; nyenl ‘smelly’; nyuds babl ‘wrinkles’

In initials

[Z z]

z

koup zix ‘by coincidence’; zeil ‘most’; zuh houc ‘governor’

 

zongh yangh ‘central’; sih zix ‘lion’

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