Consonant systems of different Yi languages resemble each other and tend to exhibit large numbers of simple consonants, but only a few complex consonants. For example, there is a three-way contrast between voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops for all three major points of articulation, i.e. bilabial, alveolar, and velar. Illustrations originate from LaloSee Björverud (1998:15-18).

Björverud, S., 1998, A grammar of Lalo, Ph.D. dissertation, Lund University. spoken in Wēishān 巍山 county.

Furthermore, there are several rare consonant patterns in the Yi group. For example, Liángshān Nuosu displays a bilabial voiced trill in its sound inventory represented as [ʙ]. It always occurs before the vowel [u] and sometimes with alveolar consonant onset as in [tʙ]. This trill is more pronounced in creaky syllables and/or with alveolar consonant onset.

The Neasu language spoken in Wēiníng 威宁 county (Guìzhōu) has an extensive set of retroflex consonants. The retroflex stops and nasal are particularly noteworthy.

The Nase language spoken in Luópíng 罗平 county (Yúnnán) has a double voicing alternation in the same consonant cluster. These oscillating clusters, which exist for the bilabial, alveolar and velar positions, consist of a voiced prenasal, a voiceless stop, as well as a breathy voicing release.

Vowel systems are simple and basically comprise of monophthongs and sometimes of a few diphthongs, such as [iε] or [uɔ]. Most Yi languages we surveyed have unrounded central [ɨ] and back vowels [ɯ] or [ɤ] ([ɤ] are only attested in the Neasu language of Wēiníng 威宁 county in Guìzhōu). Most Yi languages have a contrast [i]-[ɪ] (e.g. Liángshān Nuosu) or [i]-[y] (e.g. Wēishān Lalo, Wēiníng Neasu).

All Yi languages have a stock of at least three contrastive tones: high [⁵⁵], middle [³³] and low [²¹] (sometimes [¹¹]). Liángshān Nuosu has only three tones in addition to one sandhi-tone [⁴⁴] which is not fully contrastive. On the other hand, Wēiníng Neasu and Mílè Axi have four and five contrasting tones, respectively. (Yi languages with sandhi-tones might be more numerous than those without.)

The syllable structure in most Yi languages is relatively simple C(C)V(V)T (where T represents a suprasegmental tone). Syllables are open without nasal or obstruent closure. In addition to the regular modal phonation type, two other syllable types are widespread in the Yi group: creaky syllables and nasalized syllables. The emergence of the latter type can be attributable to Chinese loanwords. Syllables with nasal closure were borrowed from Chinese and progressively truncated into nasalized open syllables.

DSM in Mílè AzheeAzhee is a Central Loloish language spoken by about 90,000 natives in Mílè 弥勒 county of Yúnnán Province (P.R. of China). For a detailed description, see

Gerner, M., 2016b, Differential subject marking in Azhee. Folia Linguistica 50(1), 137-173. Societas Linguistica Europaea. is triggered by the animacy of the subject (A) and also by potential A/O-ambiguity. It exhibits type I and III. Many Burmese-Lolo languages mark the subject on the basis of its animacy. Animacy-triggered DSM is sparsely attested in only 10% of the world’s languagesThis percentage is based on a typological investigation of 200 languages by Fauconnier (2011: 535). See

Fauconnier, S., 2011, Differential Agent Marking and animacy. Lingua 121. 533-547.. The Azhee case marker la⁵⁵ marks either inanimate subjects or subjects that are ambiguous with objects; it does not mark other transitive subjects.

The postposition la⁵⁵ splits transitive clauses into sentences with inanimate and animate subjects. It marks one noun phrase as A, the instigating force. With zero marking, the sentence remains ungrammatical.

Word order is free as long as the inanimate A is marked by la⁵⁵, which can occur in the initial or second position.

The basic Azhee word order is unstable like in many other Loloish languages. Native speakers strongly prefer using the postposition la⁵⁵ to disambiguate between the subject and object. The NP marked by la⁵⁵ can occur in both the first and second position.

DOM in Yǒngrén LoloLolo is a Central Loloish language spoken in Yǒngrén 永仁 county of Yúnnán Province (P.R. of China). For a detailed description, see

Gerner, M., 2008, Ambiguity-driven Differential-Object Marking in Yongren Lolo. Lingua 118, 296-331. is triggered by potential A/O-ambiguity and belongs to type III. The differential object marker t^hie²¹ splits direct objects into those that are ambiguous with the subject and those that are not. This marker is only used if the meaning of the predicate does disambiguate between the subject and the object. This marker cannot be used when the predicate disambiguates between the subject and object.

Split (ambiguity)
Ambiguous O		Unambiguous O
O-thie21		O-Ø

The basic word order of subject and object is free. Ambiguous clauses such as those in (11) can and should be disambiguated by the object marker t^hie²¹.

The marker t^hie²¹ is also used to disambiguate between the subject (A) and the indirect object (B). Sentence (13a) without t^hie²¹ is ambiguous; sentence (13b) with t^hie²¹ is disambiguated.

DSM in Gèjiù NesuNesu is a Southern Loloish language spoken by about 20,000 natives in Gèjiù 个旧 city of Yúnnán Province (P.R. of China). For a description, see

Gerner, M., 2012b, Differential Subject Marking in Nesu. Paper presented at the International Conference Syntax of the World’s Languages 5, Dubrovnik, October 1-5, 2012. (Organizer: University of Zagreb). (and also Burmese) is triggered by the aspect of the clause and exhibits type IV. The Nesu particle ka⁵⁵ marks subjects differentially in accordance with the aspect of the whole clause. The subject must be case-marked, if the simple clause encodes a resultative state; it can be case-marked if the clause is perfective without implying a result. It cannot be case-marked if the clause is imperfective. The Burmese marker káSee Jenny, M. and San San Hnin Tun, 2012, Differential Subject Marking in Colloquial Burmese. Paper presented at the SEALS XXII Conference, Agay (France), May 30 - June 2, 2012. exhibits similar properties as well.

The Nesu language has basic AOV order. The differential subject marker ka⁵⁵ is obligatory in monotransitive clauses with resultative state. This is also applicable on subjects (A) that are animate, as in (14), or inanimate, as seen in (15).

The subject can be optionally marked in clauses that are not resultative or imperfective. Example (16) shows a quantized event, whereas example (17) exhibits a bounded event. Furthermore, ditransitive subjects can be optionally marked by ka⁵⁵, as evidenced in (18).

The differential subject marker ka⁵⁵ is prohibited in progressive transitive clauses, as seen in (19); in stative transitive clauses (20); and in intransitive clauses (21).

The Liángshān NuosuNuosu is the principal language of the Yi Nationality. It is spoken by more than 2,000,000 natives in Liángshān 凉山 prefecture of Sìchuān Province (P.R. China). Nuosu is a Northern Loloish language. See Gerner (2004, 2013) for a detailed syntactic description and a grammar.

Gerner, M., 2004, On a partial, strictly word-order based definition of grammatical relations in Liangshan Nuosu. Linguistics 42, 109-154.

Gerner, M., 2013, Grammar of Nuosu. MGL 64. Berlin: Mouton. language incorporates the use of differential word order depending on the aspect of the whole clause. Nuosu exhibits type IV. The word order needs to be AOV, if the simple clause encodes a resultative state; it can be AOV or OAV if the clause is perfective without implying a result; on the other hand, it must be AOV if the clause is imperfective.

Resultative clauses impose OAV order and either use resultative auxiliaries, as evidenced in (22)In example (22) which is quoted from Chen and Wu (1998: 230) the resultative auxiliary ko⁴⁴ʂa³³ ‘away’ is used. See

Chén Kāng 陈康 and Wū Dá 巫达, 1998, Yi grammar 彝语语法. Běijīng 北京: Zhōngyāng Mínzú Dàxúe Chūbănshè 中央民族大学出版社., O-oriented manner adverbs, as observed in (23), or by expressions of the form V₁-si⁴⁴-V₂ (V₁ is an activity verb, V₂ is a directional verb), as illustrated in (24).

Thematic roles are not encoded for certain verbs in Nuosu. A bare predication with two human NPs is generally deemed ambiguous.

Nuosu involves a grammatical tone on personal pronouns and certain verbs to disambiguate thematic roles. The [⁴⁴]-sandhi tone is mainly the result of a rule [³³]+[³³] → [⁴⁴]+[³³] in a number of syntactic environments. With regard to the singular personal pronoun ts^hɨ³³ which has the [³³] tone in isolation, the [⁴⁴]-sandhi tone has further acquired a grammatical meaning. It encodes the role of direct object, as demonstrated in (26). Moreover, a limited set of monosyllabic verbs have a tonal alternation [²¹]/[⁴⁴] whereby the low tone imposes OAV order and the sandhi-tone requires AOV order, something that is illustrated in (27) for the verb ndu²¹/ndu⁴⁴.

Imperfective clauses are marked by the progressive marker ndʑɔ³³, as illustrated in (28), by the presence of agent- or verb-orientated manner adverbs, as evidenced in (29)Example (29) is quoted from Chen and Wu (1998:246)

Chén Kāng 陈康 and Wū Dá 巫达, 1998, Yí Grammar 彝语语法. Běijīng 北京: Central University of Nationalities 中央民族大学出版社., or by complex verbs of the form V₁V₂ (V₁ is an activity verb, V₂ is a directional verb), as seen in (30).

In Liángshān NuosuNuosu is spoken by more than 2,000,000 natives in Liángshān 凉山 prefecture of Sìchuān Province (P.R. China). Nuosu is a Northern Loloish language. See Gerner (2006) for a detailed description and formalization of the exhaustive aspect.

Gerner, M. (2006). The exhaustion particles in the Yi group: A unified approach to all, the completive and the superlative. Journal of Semantics 24, 27-72., the so-called exhaustion particle targets three types of structures: the clause-initial NP on which it acts as universal quantifier (‘all’), the VP which it modifies as completive marker (‘completely’), as well as the AP on which it contributes the meaning of superlative (‘most’). This marker assumes the form sa⁵⁵.

In Yǒngrén LoloLolo is a Central Loloish language spoken in Yǒngrén 永仁 county of Yúnnán Province (P.R. of China). The ambiperfective aspect is sketched in a paper by

Gerner, M., 2009a, The ambiperfective in Yongren Lolo. Paper presented at the 9th International Conference on Tense, Aspect and Modality, Denis Diderot University of Paris 7 (France), September 2-4, 2009., the sentence-final particle do⁵⁵, termed ambiperfective particle, is used to convey imperfective (progressive) and perfective (completive) meanings, depending on the aspectual constitution of the clause. Table 4 depicted below provides an overview of the semantic contribution of the particle do⁵⁵ to different types of underlying clauses.

Table 4: The ambiperfective marker in Yǒngrén Lolo

Illustrations are given below. The ambiperfective particle, if appended to punctual events, conveys a (recent) perfective meaning, as seen in (34).

For quantized eventsThe term quantized events was coined by Krifka (1989, 1992, 1998). These are quantified events like eat three apples for which no proper subevent can again be of the type eat three apples.

Krifka, M., 1989, Nominalreferenz und Zeitkonstitution. Zur Semantik von Massentermen, Pluraltermen und Aspektklassen. Munich: Fink.

Krifka, M., 1992, Nominal reference, temporal constitution and thematic relations, in: Sag et al., eds., Lexical matters, Stanford: CSLI Publications, 29-53.

Krifka, M., 1998, The origins of telicity, in: S. Rothstein, ed., Events and grammar, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1998, 197-235., the ambiperfective particle do⁵⁵ conveys both of its meanings: perfective as well as imperfective meaning, resulting in ambiguous sentences.

Bounded events satisfy the property of final stage closureThis property was first described by Krifka (1992) and Naumann (2001).

Krifka, M., 1992, Nominal reference, temporal constitution and thematic relations, in: Sag et al., eds., Lexical matters, Stanford: CSLI Publications, 29-53.

Naumann, R., 2001, Aspects of changes: A dynamic event semantics, Journal of Semantics 18, 27-81.. These are events such as walk to the station, for which each final stage again reflects an event of the type walk to the station. When appended to bounded events, the ambiperfective particle do⁵⁵ switches to a perfective marker.

Finally, for cumulative eventsThe term cumulative event was first introduced by Quine (1960). Cumulative events are events for which any extension is again of the same event type.

Quine, W., 1960, Word and object. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. events, the Ambi-Perfective operator communicates an imperfective meaning; its perfective meaning is eclipsed.

In Luópíng NaseNase is a Central Loloish language spoken in Luópíng 罗平 county of Yúnnán province (P.R. of China). For an analysis of two of the three particles, see

Gerner, M., 2009b, Assessing the modality particles of the Yi group in fuzzy possible-worlds semantics. Linguistics and Philosophy, 32, 143-184., three sentence-end particles are distinguished by tone alone. The particle di¹³ marks possible epistemic mood, the particle di⁵⁵ marks necessary epistemic mood, and the particle di³³ future tense.

Table 5: Sentence particles in Luópíng Nase

These particles have historically been derived from the verb ‘say’, but none of them can no longer function as a verb in modern speech. The epistemic modals have preserved a verb-like property, namely the option of negation (whereas the future particle di³³ cannot be negated). (38a+b) and (39a+b) exemplify this interplay of negation and modals. The particle di³³ is illustrated in (40) and is not required in order to express future tense, but always expresses future tense when it is present in the clause.